Atherosclerosis refers to the formation of fibrous and fatty lesions in the artery wall. As the atherosclerotic plaque increases in size it can obstruct the arterial lumen, reduce blood flow and lead to ischaemia. Vascular occlusion and ischaemia can also result from rupture or erosion of the plaque, which are triggers for thrombus formation. Download Image

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) can generally be thought of as a loss of functional nephrons (the fundamental units of the kidney), which leads to persistent abnormalities in urine composition and volume or impaired excretory renal function. It has many possible causes, including toxic exposures, kidney-specific diseases and systemic diseases. Download Image

Familial hypercholesterolaemia is an inherited disorder caused by mutations in genes encoding proteins that are involved in the metabolism of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. Individuals with familial hypercholesterolaemia have chronically elevated plasma levels of LDL cholesterol, which can lead to premature cardiovascular disease (CVD). Download Image

Systemic arterial hypertension is characterized by persistent high blood pressure (BP) in the arteries. Most affected individuals have primary hypertension, which is caused by multifactorial gene–environment interactions. Hypertension can also be the result of another condition (secondary hypertension) or a monogenic inherited disease. Download Image

Mitochondrial diseases are a group of genetic disorders caused by mutations in genes in the mitochondrial (mtDNA) and nuclear (nDNA) genomes that encode proteins involved in mitochondrial function, resulting in defects in oxidative phosphorylation. Download Image

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is defined as the co-occurrence of three or more inter-related cardiometabolic risk factors, such as abdominal obesity, high blood pressure, dyslipidemia and/or hyperglycaemia. People with MetS are at risk of end-organ damage in multiple organ systems. Download Image

Approximately 40% of the world population is overweight or obese. Obesity is associated with the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases and some types of cancer. Some of these comorbidities are considered features of the metabolic syndrome. Download Image

Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome (OSAS) is a respiratory condition in which the airway collapses repeatedly during sleep, leading to intermittent hypoxia, increased respiratory effort and recurrent arousals. Excessive daytime sleepiness and cardiovascular and metabolic comorbidities are the main consequences. Download Image

Vitamin B12 — also known as cobalamin — has an important role as a cofactor in many cellular processes, including DNA synthesis and methylation, and mitochondrial metabolism. Deficiency is associated with various symptoms, of which the haematological (mainly anemia) and neurological (such as sensory and motor disturbances, ataxia and psychiatric disorders) manifestations are the most characteristic. Download Image